What Are Pie Charts and Why Are They Useful

One of the most common ways to represent data graphically is a pie chart. It gets its name by how it looks: a circular pie that has been cut into several slices. This kind of graph is helpful when graphing qualitative data, where the information describes a trait or attribute and is not numerical. Each trait corresponds to a different slice of the pie. By looking at all of the pie pieces, you can compare how much of the data fits in each category. The larger a category, the bigger its pie piece will be. Big or Small Slices? How do we know how large to make a pie piece? First, we need to calculate a percentage. Ask what percent of the data is represented by a given category. Divide the number of elements in this category by the total number. We then convert this decimal into a percentage. A pie is a circle. Our pie piece, representing a given category, is a portion of the circle. Because a circle has 360 degrees all the way around, we need to multiply 360 by our percentage. This gives us the measure of the angle that our pie piece should have. Using a Pie Chart in Statistics To illustrate the above, let’s think about the following example. In a cafeteria of 100 third graders, a teacher looks at the eye color of each student and records it. After all 100 students are examined, the results show that 60 students have brown eyes, 25 have blue eyes and 15 have hazel eyes. The slice of pie for brown eyes needs to be the largest. And it needs to be over twice as large as the slice of pie for blue eyes. To say exactly how large it should be, first find out what percent of the students have brown eyes. This is found by dividing the number of brown-eyed students by the total number of students and converting to a percent. The calculation is 60/100 x 100 percent 60 percent. Now we find 60 percent of 360 degrees, or .60 x 360 216 degrees. This reflex angle is what we need for our brown pie piece. Next look at the slice of pie for blue eyes. Since there are a total of 25 students with blue eyes out of a total of 100, this means that this trait accounts for 25/100x100 percent 25 percent of the students. One quarter, or 25 percent of 360 degrees, is 90 degrees (a right angle). The angle for the pie piece representing the hazel-eyed students can be found in two ways. The first is to follow the same procedure as the last two pieces. The easier way is to notice that there are only three categories of data, and we have accounted for two already. The remainder of the pie corresponds to the students with hazel eyes. Limitations of Pie Charts Pie charts are to be used with qualitative data. However, there are some limitations to using them. If there are too many categories, then there will be a multitude of pie pieces. Some of these are likely to be very skinny and can be difficult to compare to one another. If we want to compare different categories that are close in size, a pie chart does not always help us to do this. If one slice has a central angle of 30 degrees, and another has a central angle of 29 degrees, then it would be very hard to tell at a glance which pie piece is larger than the other.

The Current Information Security Landscape Of Small...

Small businesses form a critical part of the economy and play a key role in the creation of jobs and improving the livelihoods of many individuals in the society. However, in the advancement of technology and the use of information systems by these businesses, there has grown a threat to the continued successful operations of these businesses due to the threat of cyber attacks. This paper will focus on researching on the current information security landscape of small businesses, specifically in cloud computing and social networking. The paper will also make a discussion of the potential consequences of not implementing security practices, show the common threats that are associated with small businesses and finally describe the strategies that will provide assurance in information security for small businesses. Current information security landscape of small businesses Small businesses are currently faced by contradicting opportunities and challenges. On one hand, there is the growth and advancement in cloud computing and social media marketing which present an excellent opportunity for small enterprises to market themselves and deliver high quality services to their customers. On the other hand, the growth in these sectors have presented very big challenges in the form of the information systems security of those companies that use them and information overload where small enterprises have very high volumes of information which they may notShow MoreRelatedMarketing Plan and Security Solutions1504 Words   |  6 PagesMarketing Plan Security Solutions Contents I. Introduction 3 II. Stakeholders Analysis 4 Customer Analysis: 4 Competitor Analysis: 4 Company Analysis: 5 Community: 5 III. Branding + Positioning 6 IV. Marketing Mix 6 Product: 6 Price: 7 Place: 7 Promotion: 7 V. 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However, many businesses simply are not prepared for or have limited resources available toRead MoreThe Plan Of An Insurance Policy1496 Words   |  6 Pagesconducting a thorough audit of the current information on security risks, which can be conducted during the assessment of risk process in the framework, after, the company will assess the current insurance coverage and review the assets and liability of the insurance policies to identify the gap in policy coverage and so on. Next, the examination and evaluation of available insurance policies will b e conducted. In this process, it is important to note that cyber security is still a new concept, particularlyRead MorePolitical Risks And Its Effects On Local Activity831 Words   |  4 Pagesunder consideration before sharing information which can harm them in the future. There are four main risks that have to be observed. The first risk refers to the local conflicts in one of the participating countries. 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The Case of ASIC V Soust- Free-Samples for Students-Myassignment

Question: Discuss the foundations of Australian Corporations law and Constitutional aspects and administration. Answer: Introduction The Corporations Act, 2001, herein refereed as CA, is the act of the Parliament of Australia, hence, the act of Commonwealth (Federal Register of Legislation, 2017). Due to these reasons, it is applicable on all the companies which have its operations or business in Australia, unless specifically exempted (Latimer, 2012). This act puts an obligation over the directors of the company to run the business of the company, in which they hold the position of a director, for the companys shareholders. In absence of doing so, they are held both liable under both the civil and criminal law, depending on the breach of the duties contained in the CA (Cassidy, 2006). The case of ASIC v Soust [2010] FCA 68 is one of such cases, where the duties given to the directors of the company, were breached, as a result of which, Soust was held liable by the Federal Court (Hodgkinson, 2010). In the ensuing parts, the background of this case, the breached duties and the decision of the court has been summarized. Background The case revolves around Martin Soust, herein referred as the Director, who was the Select Vaccines Limiteds CEO and MD. The terms of service of the Director were properly covered under the Executive Service Agreement in which the conditions which made the applicability of bonus for the Director were mentioned (Woodhead, 2012). As per this condition, the Director had to be paid the bonus, apart from his annual fee, only when the prices of shares moved beyond ten percent on the basis of the Intersuisse Citotech Index. Further, this moment of shares was to be evaluated at the calendar year ending date and the same were to be reported (ASIC, 2010). The Director was a part of the companys board of directors and due to this reason he had to comply with the Select Vaccines Limiteds share trading policy. Under this share trading policy, the Director had been prohibited from trading in Select Vaccines Limiteds new shares, except for a period of six weeks after the Annual General Meeting of the company, along with six weeks after the release of the annual and half yearly results of Select Vaccines Limited (Hodgkinson, 2010). Ignoring these policies and restrictions, the Director placed a bid through his stock broker through phone on the last day of 2007 in the closing hours. Such trading was done beyond the allowed windows of trading. At that time period, the last sale was done at the price of 2 cents per share, which depicted a lack of market depth. The Director was aware that the same would be translated into the requirement of different trades so as to fill his order and due to which, the price would go higher than 2.4 cents per share, which was the price which was offered in the last. The Director made a decision to undergo a transaction at this price and as soon as he did do, trade of shares was made at 2.5 cents for every share. Due to this, the share prices were inflated by 19.05% as compared to previous year, where the shares held the value of 2.1 cents. As a result of this entire transaction, the requirements contained in the Executive Service Agreement of the Director, with regards to the outpe rformance of the Intersuisse Citotech Index were attained. Had the Director not been involved in such transaction, the value would have shown a decrease of the prices of share by 4.76%, resulting in the Intersuisse Citotech Index being underperformed by 3.27% (Hodgkinson, 2010). The Director contained to attend the meetings of board and that of the remuneration committee. And yet he did not make a disclosure with regards to the transaction undertaken by him. This disclosure was required under his Executive Service Agreement and the lack of the same resulted in him being paid the performance bonus as was promised. Had the transaction not been undertaken by the Director, the bonus would not have been paid to him (Hodgkinson, 2010). The accusation was made by the ASIC with regards to the creation of artificial price on part of the Director and which resulted in market manipulation (Bowley, 2013). The actions undertaken by the Director resulted in false and misleading appearances being created (OConnell, 2013). And these appearances resulted in such an indication being given that the shares of the company had an active market and were regularly traded at the high prices, and this practice could be deemed as market rigging. It was also claimed by ASIC that the Director had contravened his duties as being the companys director as he did not undertake his duties which were put on him through the CA (Hodgkinson, 2010). The Director claimed that he had not contravened any provisions of CA, even though the factual evidence was not challenged by him. He stated that he had taken part in a genuine transaction, deeming which as fictitious would be wrong. Further, he stated that he never misled any seller and that there was not artificial in the shares being purchased at the prices at which they were offered. He also made a contention that taking steps to increase the share prices could not be deemed as unlawful. However, the claims of ASIC differed from the claims of the Director (Jade, 2010). Duties Breached Under CAs section 181(1), the directors have been given the responsibility of undertaking their obligations and using the powers which have been given to them in such a manner which can be deemed as having being carried on good faith, for proper purpose and in the best interest of the company (Australian Government, 2017). CAs section 182(1) brings forward the obligation with regards to making proper use of the position which the director or the officer holds in the company, by being the director or officer of the company, in such a manner, which does not prove to be in the detriment of the company, and of such nature, where some other person attains a benefit out of it (Australasian Legal Information Institute, 2017). The breach of 181(1) and 182(1) result in the penalties being imposed as are given under section 1317E of CA (ICNL, 2017). A declaration of contravention can be made under section 1317E, following which, the ASIC can make an application for section 206C disqualification order or for section 1317G pecuniary penalties (WIPO, 2015). Courts Decision The Federal Court provided that in order for the contentions of the ASIC to be proved right, the test had to be applied with regards to t he prices so as to examine if the breach had indeed taken place in comparison to the normal course of activities. The court viewed that it was important that the integrity of the market was maintained so that the interest of the concerned buyers could be protected by lowest prices being offered and for the seller by higher prices being offered. This was crucial for the demand and supply of the normal market force. It was held by the Federal Court that by buying the shares at artificially high prices, the share trading policy was breached by the Director. In addition to this, the Federal Court held that by failing to disclose the undertaken transaction to the remuneration committee and to the board of directors, the Director breached the provisions of good faith contained in the CA. This necessitated the application of pecuniary penalties on the Dir ector, along with considering the need of passing the disqualification order (Hodgkinson, 2010). To make a decision on this, the use of position of the Director was analyzed. As per the obligations imposed on the Director, by holding the position, the best interest of the company had to be given the priority. The bonus made by the Director depicted just the opposite of this, as the position was misused, as a result of which the Director was awarded the bonus, which would be construed as detriment of the company. Had the director made proper disclosure with regards to the transaction undertaken by him, the bonus would not have been awarded, which would have resulted in the company not being wronged. But the contrary was done by the Director. So, both 181(1) and 182(1) were contravened by the Director (Australasian Legal Information Institute, 2010). Conclusion Through the case of ASIC v Soust, it is clarified that the companys directors are required to stay away from such dealings, which cause detriment to the company, while resulting in an advantage for their personal selves. In case any director takes part in such transactions, it becomes their duty to make complete disclosures regarding it, so that the board and the other bodies can be aware about such transaction. The disclosure of such policies is taken as the fulfillment of director duties, which was not done in this case. And the result of this was seen in a case being brought forward against the Director by the ASIC and ultimately the breach of CA being established by the Federal Court. This case also acts as guidance to the directors and officers in the companies across the nation, to not indulge in such activities, which can result in the provisions of CA being contravened. References ASIC. (2010) 10-88AD ASIC obtains pecuniary penalty and disqualification order against former Select Vaccines director. [Online] ASIC. Available from: https://asic.gov.au/about-asic/media-centre/find-a-media-release/2010-releases/10-88ad-asic-obtains-pecuniary-penalty-and-disqualification-order-against-former-select-vaccines-director/ [Accessed on: 17/06/17] Australasian Legal Information Institute. (2010). Australian Securities Investments Commission v Soust [2010] FCA 68 (15 February 2010). [Online] Australasian Legal Information Institute. Available from: https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/FCA/2010/68.html [Accessed on: 17/06/17] Australasian Legal Information Institute. (2017) Corporations Act 2001. [Online] Australasian Legal Information Institute. Available from: https://www.companydirectors.com.au/director-resource-centre/organisation-type/organisation-definitions [Accessed on: 17/06/17] Australian Government. (2017) Corporations Act 2001. [Online] Australian Government. Available from: https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/C2013C00605 [Accessed on: 17/06/17] Bowley, R. (2013). DPP v JM: High Court clarifies the meaning of "artificial price" under s 1041A. [Online] University of Technology Sydney. Available from: https://opus.lib.uts.edu.au/bitstream/10453/44097/4/58340B2B-D59F-4207-BCF1-1B5BA8631498.pdf [Accessed on: 17/06/17] Cassidy, J. (2006) Concise Corporations Law. 5th ed. NSW: The Federation Press. Federal Register of Legislation. (2017) Corporations Act 2001. [Online] Federal Register of Legislation. Available from: https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/C2013C00605 [Accessed on: 17/06/17] Hodgkinson, J. (2010). CEO guilty of market manipulation. [Online] John Hodgkinson. Available from: https://johnhodgkinson.wordpress.com/2010/02/19/ceo-guilty-of-market-manipulation-and-market-rigging/ [Accessed on: 17/06/17] ICNL. (2017) Corporations Act 2001. [Online] ICNL. Available from: https://www.icnl.org/research/library/files/Australia/Corps2001Vol4WD02.pdf [Accessed on: 17/06/17] Jade. (2010). Australian Securities Investments Commission v Soust [2010] FCA 68. [Online] Jade. Available from: https://jade.io/article/126608 [Accessed on: 17/06/17] Latimer, P. (2012) Australian Business Law 2012. 31st ed. Sydney, NSW: CCH Australia Limited. OConnell, A. (2013). Protecting the Integrity of Securities Markets What is an Artificial Price?: DPP (Cth) v JM. [Online] The University of Melbourne. Available from: https://blogs.unimelb.edu.au/opinionsonhigh/2013/08/01/o-connell-jm/#more-1608 [Accessed on: 17/06/17] WIPO. (2015) Corporations Act 2001. [Online] WIPO. Available from: https://www.wipo.int/wipolex/en/text.jsp?file_id=370817 [Accessed on: 17/06/17] Woodhead, B. (2012). ASIC hits and misses. [Online] The Australian Financial Review. Available from: https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:FM1rFQRrOIcJ:www.afr.com/business/asic-hits-and-misses-20120503-j2xi4+cd=1hl=enct=clnkgl=in [Accessed on: 17/06/17]

George Washington and Espionage in the Revolutionary War free essay sample

There is nothing more necessary than good Intelligence to frustrate a designing enemy, amp; nothing that requires greater pains to obtain. – George Washington, 1755 President George Washington is known by the many facets of his spectacular leadership: as a general, a politician, farmer and local leader, and our nation’s founder. Washington’s place in history is secured by his efforts to turn a band of unorganized, underequipped rebels into a formidable national army that defeated a colonial superpower. Indeed, Washington’s military leadership was instrumental in resolving the American Revolutionary War in the favor of the colonists. However, close study of the Continental Army’s progress during the war shows that in battle, especially early in the war, General Washington was regularly defeated and outmaneuvered by British forces. Tactically outmatched, Washington found success by strategically outsmarting his British counterparts; making use of the great distances on the American continent to effectively â€Å"divide and conquer† British efforts, allowing Washington’s troops to destroy individual detachments in the field. We will write a custom essay sample on George Washington and Espionage in the Revolutionary War or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The American’s reliance on guerilla type warfare and surprising British commanders required top-rate intelligence. Nearly every one of Washington’s strategic masterstrokes of the war involved misleading one British army, allowing the Continental Army to swiftly strike at other British forces unopposed. These complex operations required rebels to not only gather information on British intentions, but also plant false information on American movements to mislead British military leaders. To this end, Washington created America’s first espionage agency, simultaneously developing several spy rings and covert operations to assist Washington in meeting rebel war aims. The heroic efforts and sacrifices of America’s earliest spies and the influence they played on the eventual patriot victory cannot be underestimated; underground organizations such as the Culper Ring and spies such as Nathan Hale were instrumental in providing Washington a clear strategic view of British dispositions within the occupied territories. The unprecedented insight into British deployments that Washington’s spies afforded him directly contributed to stunning patriot victories such as at Trenton, Saratoga and in the Yorktown Campaign. In their secret battle for intelligence supremacy, Washington’s spymaster Benjamin Tallmadge squared off against an extensive British and Loyalist spy network led by the energetic Major John Andre. In order to understand the effect of spying in George Washington’s command from a primary perspective, the study of authentic spycraft in the late 18th Century is essential. Agents on both sides of the war made use of various â€Å"tricks of the trade† primarily to send secret information to their handlers. Operating behind enemy lines, the spies had to get detailed information past enemy lines without revealing themselves or the recipients of their intelligence. To do this they made extensive use of covert methods including: coded messages, invisible ink, dead drops, mask letters and messages concealed in quills. Learning from early mistakes, such as the loss of patriot spy Nathan Hale in 1776, American spies’ specialized in developing extensive networks of informants and lines of communication. Benjamin Tallmadge and the Culper Ring successfully utilized dead drops and invisible ink many times to get vital information out of British occupied cities. Major John Andre instructed British correspondence written in invisible ink to be marked with an â€Å"F† or â€Å"A†; to identify if heat or chemicals would reveal the hidden message. Among the most successful invisible ink formulas used by patriot agents was a potent agent-reagent ink mix created by Sir James Jay, brother to John Jay of Jay Treaty and Supreme Court fame. The specially formulated invisible ink could only be revealed by its equally unique counterpart and was used almost exclusively in the all-important dispatches between spy leaders such as Tallmadge and George Washington. To ensure security of information, agents in the field were only ever in possession of the invisible ink, the revealing reagent was kept safely at headquarters to safeguard it from being compromised by British capture. The British officials made more use of novel encryption techniques such as the mask letter, used extensively by Sir Henry Clinton to hide a message within a message, as well as concealing his messages within hollow quills. Many of the tactics used by spies in the Revolutionary War are still standard practice among the modern intelligence community. In addition to complex, covert operations, more basic methods of intelligence gathering involved regular troops and such simple actions as intercepting enemy correspondence. City and camp security along with picket lines and patrols ensured the capture of some secret correspondence in the war. Famous examples include the interception of Miss Jenny’s intelligence actions for the patriots and the capture of Major Andre by militia troops. Ultimately, the spying techniques of the late 18th Century allowed Washington’s top spies to score major intelligence victories yet exposed them to grave peril and even death. George Washington’s experiences in the French and Indian War are often cited as the formative period for Washington’s military genius. Less studied is Washington’s just as abrupt introduction to the world of espionage in his western campaigns. A fast rising, young and energetic Major Washington of the Virginia militia was sent by Governor Dinwiddie in 1753 to inform French forces in the Ohio Country of Britain’s claim to the area and requested the French to leave. It was during this foray that Washington, disguised as an ordinary trader, dined with some French leaders who, affected by the wine, told Washington the name and location of the four French forts in Ohio. Using these observations and his skill as a surveyor, Washington drew a map of the Ohio River valley displaying the French dispositions and his thought on their intentions. Washington also came across hundreds of French canoes on the river, which he deduced were built for offensive action. Showing the inexperience and impetuosity of a young man, the now lieutenant-colonel Washington, his small band of men and in alliance with the Iroquois leader Tanacharison, the â€Å"Half-King†, ambushed a French Canadian force and killed its leader Joseph de Jumonville. However, Washington’s brash actions also showed courage and initiative in unfamiliar terrain, as noted by his French captors after his defeat at Fort Necessity in July 1754. Interestingly enough, Washington’s actions were the spark that ignited the Seven Years War and secured his fame even in London. After his release by the French, Washington accompanied General Edward Braddock on the ill-fated Wilderness Campaign which saw the British regulars, marching in bright red uniforms and in straight line formation, were defeated by the more practical camouflage and tactics of the French and their Native American allies. Washington’s experiences from the battle were transformative to his military thinking. Most importantly, it awoke in Washington the realization that accurate intelligence was an essential part of any military campaign. Washington would use the experiences of his early military career to develop his military genius and his appreciation for strong intelligence networks. America’s first espionage network developed in a time of great social changes. In addition to political and military strife, the division of American society into Patriot and Loyalist camps created a hotbed of subversion and secret activities. The spy rings developed and used extensively in the coming war by George Washington had their root in the secret societies that rose in opposition to British policies. The oppressive actions by British Parliament, beginning with the Stamp Act and the occupation of the North American mainland by professional British troops, led to enormous tensions between the colonists and the crown. In addition to the overarching political strife, the conflict between Patriot and Loyalist colonials tore American society apart. With public outcries of dissent against British policies expressly forbidden, patriot activists developed extensive secret societies to marshal and organize colonial resistance without fear of reprisal. The largest of these was the Sons of Liberty whose resistance to British oppression became more and more violent. It was the Sons of Liberty who organized the Boston Tea Party and other vocal demonstrations against British rule. In addition to stirring public support for the rebel movement, the Sons early rosters included several important political and military leaders of the new United States and the precursors of the wartime spy rings. Most importantly for the war effort, these secret societies allowed wealthy, yet established, American benefactors to covertly fund the rebellion. Beginning in the Spring of 1775 the development of hostilities accelerated dramatically. In March, Patrick Henry delivers his famous â€Å"give me liberty or give me death† speech to the Virginia Assembly. The next month British commander General Gage commences aggressive actions against colonial militia stores, drawing strong reactions from the colonial assemblies. The first shots of the war were fired at Lexington and Concord where colonial militiamen were driven off by British regulars. The famous Ride of Paul Revere was in fact the first intelligence mission of the war, with Revere’s report allowing the Lexington militia to muster before the British arrived. Revere’s connection with covert intrigues did not end with his rider owever, when his wife Rachel sent Paul a letter along with 125 pounds the man she entrusted to deliver it, Sons of Liberty and Massachusetts Provisional Congress member Benjamin Church, turned out to be a loyalist and gave the letter to General Gage. The first years of the rebellion were especially difficult for the patriots; the relatively unorganized militias were being completely outfought by British regulars and the rebel cause didn’t even enjoy universal support among the colonial population. Loyalist informants scored several early victories that allowed arriving British troops to strike rebel militias before they could fully muster. Well-known American scientist Benjamin Thompson sent a message in invisible ink to General Gage which listed the movements and numbers of the rebel army. Despite the many setbacks, the rebels scored a number of victories; Benedict Arnold and Ethan Allen stormed Fort Ticonderoga, and American militiamen took Bunker Hill. Further successes in the beginning of 1776 forced the British to withdraw from vulnerable Boston when Washington moved his artillery to the heights above the city. With these victories the French and Spanish began funding and supplying the American Revolution through the use of front companies, a decidedly covert activity. On July 4th, 1776 the Continental Congress signed the Declaration of Independence, establishing the United States of America with George Washington as Commander in Chief. With this declaration the conflict turned from a resistance/police action to a full-scale open war. Commanding the nascent American forces against the world’s most formidable colonial power was no easy task and General Washington was forced to use that tactics he learned in the French and Indian War to combat the overwhelming British superiority of arms. To this end he made use of North America’s huge territory and imposing geography, the limited British forces had no hope of occupying the vast countryside, where 90% of the American population lived. Based on their naval superiority, the British held the major coastal cities and courted Loyalist support, especially in the South and in Canada. Washington spent much of the early years of the war reacting to British initiative. Recently withdrawn from Boston, William Howe landed 20,000 British soldiers on Long Island in August of 1776 and defeated patriot resistance. Last minute intelligence warned Washington of the threat of Howe’s flanking maneuver to the rebel army. In a desperate dash, Washington’s army slipped the trap and crossed the East River at night without casualties. Despite his successful withdrawal, the British remained on the offensive, capturing New York City and holding it for the remainder of the war and moving German mercenaries into New Jersey. As the center of British occupation in America, New York City became the primary target for patriot intelligence gathering missions. In the chaos following New York’s fall to the British, Washington was forced to authorize hastily organized covert operations within the city. It was into this dangerous situation that schoolteacher Nathan Hale reluctantly volunteered to enter occupied New York and scout out British fortifications. Hale’s mission suffered bad luck from the start. The same day he was caught, members of his regiment had set pre-planned fires throughout the city to disrupt British operations. Also against his luck, a Tory relative of Hale recognized him as a patriot and it wasn’t long before the schoolteacher turned spy found himself carted before Howe and eventually executed. Hale’s fame as an American hero stems not from his success but from his unshakable determination to serve his country even if he had no formal training. Hale’s final words were purportedly â€Å"I only regret that I have but one life to give for my country. Washington’s budding spy network did eventually see success, when it gave Washington the information necessary for his iconic Crossing of the Delaware. December of 1776 was a dark time for the rebellion, which had seen itself defeated on several fronts. Realizing the need for a symbolic victory to raise the morale of his troops, Washing ton began inquiries about Colonel Johann Rall and his Hessian mercenaries stationed in Trenton, New Jersey. Rebel financier Robert Morris paid former British soldier John Honeyman to spy on the German dispositions, location of picket guards and guard routines. In addition to sending back vital information to Washington, Honeyman managed to befriend Rall and convinced him that Washington’s troops were unclothed, unfed and unequipped for battle. Convinced that he and his troops could enjoy the Christmas festivities in peace, the Hessian troops were wholly unprepared for Washington’s attack on December 26th, 1776. Washington’s important victory, followed up with further success at the Battle of Princeton in January, set the Continentals to emerge from the winter in 1777 with enough will and fighting strength to continue the war. Though Washington’s quick strikes at small British detachments bore resemblance to Fabian tactics and had little strategic effect on the war, the important morale boosting victories at Trenton and Princeton set the stage for American victory in the larger campaigns and set-piece battles from 1777 onward. Washington’s successes forced Howe to withdraw British detachments towards New York City’s surrounding area, yet his army of occupation still acted as a powerful force-in-being, effectively threatening all the middle colonies. The British entered the summer of 1777 with a regained initiative; the cornerstone of which was General Burgoyne’s invasion down the Hudson River valley from Canada. The obvious next move for the British would have been for Howe to link up with Burgoyne’s army in Albany, thereby cutting New England off from the rest of the states. Howe, whether operating under overconfidence, falsified American reports or miscommunication made the strategic blunder of invading Pennsylvania instead of meeting Burgoyne. Howe’s questionable decision already aroused concern among British officers, with Sir Henry Clinton writing to Burgoyne about Howe’s actions. With Britain’s two main armies in the America’s separated by separate campaigns, Washington immediately went on the offensive, attacking Howe in Pennsylvania. Washington’s Continentals were driven off by Howe at Brandywine and Germantown followed by the British occupation of Philadelphia, yet these skirmishes proved just enough to distract the head British commander from the events taking place to the north. American General Horatio Gates overwhelmed and surrounded Burgoyne’s army at Saratoga over the course of a several day battle. Though this iconic first victory in a large-scale battle was not Washington’s to be had, his clever use of falsified information leaks and his foreknowledge of Burgoyne’s and Howe’s plans allowed him to plan and enact this strategic masterstroke. The American victory at Saratoga was one of the most important battles of the Revolutionary War and was arguably the turning point in that conflict. Most importantly, the highly visible defeat and capture of an entire British army by the rebels signaled a shift in the balance of power. As Washington’s soldiers entered winter quarters at Valley Forge, American diplomats where already negotiating alliances with France. French involvement in this now global war expanded to include Spain and the Netherlands also fighting the British. Washington spent much of 1778 training and consolidating his forces while the British, now under the overall command of Sir Henry Clinton, attempted regain the initiative by launching offensives in the southern states. Clinton sought to use Loyalists support to win the war for the British and enlisted many Tories to his cause. Among these was Anne Bates, a loyalist spy who was sent to spy on Washington’s camp in White Plains, NY. In 1780, the patriot spies of Benjamin Tallmadge’s Culper Ring informed Washington of the impending British attack on his camp at Morristown, allowing Washington’s weakened forces to slow the British attack and escape. The central effort of George Washington’s espionage activities was the Culper Ring, led by Washington’s favorite spymaster Benjamin Tallmadge. Founded in the summer of 1778, the spy ring, name after the Culper brothers who were members, operated extensively throughout the warzones but especially in the New York, New Jersey and Connecticut area. Learning from the mistakes of hasty espionage that characterized Nathan Hale’s operations in the early years of the war, Tallmadge developed a large, efficient but incredibly secretive organization that served its function well till the end of the war. Secrecy was so tight that even George Washington did not know the names of all the members, protecting all members of the rebel intelligence force in the case of British interception of secret messages. The Culper Ring had an extensive support system of informants and safehouses so that its agents would not be left unsupported as in the case of Hale. These master spies made use of dead drops and codes to encrypt their secrets. The Culper Ring leaders, including Richard Townsend who was codenamed Culper Junior and Caleb Brewster, developed an elaborate courier route to secrete messages out of occupied New York City. This â€Å"spies highway† used dead drops and patriot safe houses to ferry Washington’s agents across the Long Island Sound to Connecticut, and from there it avoided British patrols till finally reaching Washington’s camp. The security and availability of this important line of communication was frequently discussed in the secret dispatches. In one such correspondence, Washington outlines to Tallmadge a plan to alter the route, â€Å"The plan for opening the communication by way of Staten Island may be delayed until ‘C’ hears further from me on the subject. †, with ‘C’ referring to Samuel Culper, code name for the entire Culper Ring. Members of the ring were often referred to by numbers, George Washington himself was referred to as Agent 711 in Culper Ring correspondence. Many other agents working with the Culper Ring brought important intelligence to light, even paying with their lives for it. Such is the example of Agent 355, an unnamed â€Å"lady† who gained access to British spymaster John Andre’s secret papers. Unfortunately, it is believed this woman was caught and hanged by British forces. Her efforts help lead to the Culper Ring’s greatest success: uncovering the treason and plot by Benedict Arnold to turn over West Point to the British. Arnold was disgruntled at the many slights and lack of pay forthcoming from the Continental Congress while the British hoped control of West Point would let them cut the rebel forces in two. John Andre managed to meet with Arnold to arrange the defection, but on the way back to British lines Andre was caught by American militiamen when he mistook the soldiers for British supporting Tories, because one wore a Hessian overcoat, and divulged his loyalties and mission quite readily. The shocked yet astute militiamen turned Andre over to Lt. Col. John Jameson, Arnold’s subordinate. Though Tallmadge correctly suspected Andre and prevented him from being handed to Arnold, the treasonous general got word of Andre’s capture and escaped to New York where he hunted down Culper Ring members. The tireless spying of the Culper Ring and Benjamin Tallmadge’s insight into Andre’s true nature allowed this grave threat and iconic treason to be caught before it was sprung. Captured correspondence directly led to Andre’s capture, Tallmadge was easily able to deduce that the John Anderson of the letters was Major Andre. Not long after, the mysterious ‘Gustavus’, the recipient of the letter was unmasked as Benedict Arnold. The American Revolutionary War was much more than just a clash of men and steel. It was a battle of wits, daring and boldness played out by some of the greatest military minds of the age. Outnumbered and outgunned, George Washington managed to turn a highly divided colonial militia into the formidable force that defeated what was at the time one of the largest invasions in history. By playing to his strengths, and the strengths of the nascent United States, Washington used America’s great size and ruggedness to draw the British into a Fabian war of attrition. As important if not more than sheer military feats, Washington and his spies fought a separate battle of intrigue and guile that, in the end, spelled ultimate victory for George Washington and the Continental Army. It is clear from the sheer volume of correspondence between General Washington and his spymasters, such as Benjamin Tallmadge, that our young nation’s wartime leader was fully aware of importance of the intelligence situation. His foresight in regard to espionage and his meticulous attention to every detail of the war effort is what forced the British withdrawal and the independence of the United States of America. Washington’s abilities to manage all necessary affairs with great energy and talent enabled him to set a fine example and historical precedent as our nation’s first president. [ 1 ]. Washington, George. The Founding Fathers of American Intelligence: George Washington. P. K. Rose, Editor. CIA Center for the Study of Intelligence. [ 2 ]. Maj. Bush. Disposition on British Spies, December 13, 1777. The George Washington Papers at the Library of Congress, 1741-1799. United States Library of Congress, Manuscript Division. [ 3 ]. Spy Report by Joseph Walker to George Washington, March 30, 1781. The George Washington Papers at the Library of Congress, 1741-1799. United States Library of Congress, Manuscript Division. [ 4 ]. Samuel Culper Jr. (aka Richard Townsend) to John Bolton in Code. The George Washington Papers at the Library of Congress, 1741-1799. United States Library of Congress, Manuscript Division. [ 5 ]. Foster, Ghering, Light McCollum. Spy Letters of the American Revolution – Invisible Ink. William L. Clements Library, University of Michigan. [ 6 ]. George Washington to Benjamin Tallmadge, April 30, 1779. John C. Fitzpatrick, Editor. The Writings of George Washington from the Original Sources, 1745-1799. [ 7 ]. Foster, Ghering, Light McCollum. Spy Letters of the American Revolution – People of the Revolution: Miss Jenny. William L. Clements Library, University of Michigan. [ 8 ]. Lengel, Edward. General George Washington. Pg. 32 [ 9 ]. Washington, George. George Washington’s Map, accompanying his â€Å"Journal to the Ohio, 1754. United States Library of Congress, Geography and Map Division. [ 10 ]. Carbone, Gerald M. Washington: Lessons in Leadership. Great General Series. Pg. 19 [ 11 ]. Carbone, Gerald M. Washington: Lessons in Leadership. Great General Series. Pg. 48 [ 12 ]. Kreamer, Todd Allen. Sons of Liberty:How a Secret Society of Rebel Americans Made Its Mark on Early America. [ 13 ]. Foster, Ghering, Light McCollum. Spy Letters of the American Revolution – Letter from Rachel Revere to Paul Revere, April/May 1775. William L. Clements Library, University of Michigan. [ 14 ]. Foster, Ghering, Light McCollum. Spy Letters of the American Revolution – Invisible Ink Letter from Benjamin Thompson to Unknown, May 6, 1775. William L. Clements Library, University of Michigan. [ 15 ]. Nathan Spicer to George Washington Deposition on British Military Operations. John C. Fitzpatrick, Editor. The Writings of George Washington from the Original Sources, 1745-1799. [ 16 ]. McIntyre, Ruluff D. George Washington: Master of Misinformation – Hero with a Purpose. [ 17 ]. McIntyre, Ruluff D. George Washington: Master of Misinformation – Hero with a Purpose. [ 18 ]. Carbone, Gerald M. Washington: Lessons in Leadership. Great General Series. Pg. 112 [ 19 ]. Foster, Ghering, Light McCollum. Spy Letters of the American Revolution – Letter from William Howe to John Burgoyne concealed in quill tip, July 17, 1777. William L. Clements Library, University of Michigan. [ 20 ]. Foster, Ghering, Light McCollum. Spy Letters of the American Revolution – Letter from Henry Clinton to John Burgoyne, August 10, 1777. William L. Clements Library, University of Michigan. [ 21 ]. Nelson, Charles Esq. An Original, Compiled and Corrected Account of Burgoyne’s Campaign, and the Memorable Battles of Bemis’s Heights, Sept. 19, and Oct. 7, 1777. Pg. 63 [ 22 ]. Nelson, Charles Esq. An Original, Compiled and Corrected Account of Burgoyne’s Campaign, and the Memorable Battles of Bemis’s Heights, Sept. 19, and Oct. 7, 1777. Pg. 201 [ 23 ]. Foster, Ghering, Light McCollum. Spy Letters of the American Revolution – Undated, Unsigned Letter regarding Loyalist spy Ann Bates. William L. Clements Library, University of Michigan. [ 24 ]. Allen, Thomas. George Washington, Spymaster. 2004. pg. 49 [ 25 ]. Allen, Thomas. George Washington, Spymaster. 2004. pg. 51 [ 26 ]. Letter from George Washington to Benjamin Tallmadge, April 30, 1779. John C. Fitzpatrick, Editor. The Writings of George Washington from the Original Sources, 1745-1799. [ 27 ]. Foster, Ghering, Light McCollum. Spy Letters of the American Revolution – Letter from George Washington to Benhamin Tallmadge Ordering the Creation of the Culper Ring, June 27, 1779. William L. Clements Library, University of Michigan. [ 28 ]. Smith, Joshua. An Authentic Narrative of the Causes Which Led to the Death of Major Andre. [ 29 ]. Maj. John Andre. Major Andre’s Journal. Col. C. Willcox, Editor. Pg. 115

HUMA1301 ch. 1-8 Flashcard

HUMA1301 ch. 1-8

Outline and evaluate one theory of the formation of romantic relationships Essays

Outline and evaluate one theory of the formation of romantic relationships Essays Outline and evaluate one theory of the formation of romantic relationships Paper Outline and evaluate one theory of the formation of romantic relationships Paper One of the theories that helps explain why some people choose one person over the other or some relationships just don’t work is the ‘Filter Model’ (FM) which was proposed by Kerchoff and Davis in 1962.  The FM argues that relationships develop through 3 filters, so therefore, different factors are important at different times. There are many potential partners but slowly we narrow them down to potential partners that we could realistically form a romantic relationship with, through the process of filtering. The first filter looks at demographic or social variables. So we discard those people who we will never come into contact during our lives. Therefore this leaves us with the people who we tend to mix with: go to school/ work, live in the same area or do the same activities or sports. As we can’t meet everyone in the world, billions are automatically filtered out as it would be impossible to establish a relationship with them. The second filter is that of ‘Similarities of Attitudes and Values’. If couples share ideas, values and beliefs then communication will be easy but if they don’t then they would hardly have anything to talk about, so their relationship wouldn’t be able to progress. Due to this people who are very different to us are also filtered out. The last filter is ‘Complementary Needs’ where once a relationship is established we take into account how well the couple are together and how they meet each other’s needs. If the partners don’t complement each other then they will be filtered out, so therefore the relationship will end before it has properly begun. The FM is supported by various studies, for example a researcher tested the model and found that in the initial stages of a relationship, the second filter was the most important but after 18 months the third was more important. This supports the theory because it argues that different factors are important at different times in the relationship. In the initial stages, in order for the relationship to progress the couple must share things in common in order to be able to communicate with each other. However, as the relationship develops the third filter starts becoming more important as you’re starting to enrol in a long term relationship. Each partner will have to complement each other’s needs if not the relationship will inevitably end, so this is why after about 18 months filter 3 does become more important. Furthermore, Sprecher in 1998 found that those matched in physical attractiveness, social background and interests were more likely to develop a long term relationship. This also supports the FM as in the second filter, we filter out those who are very different to us and only keep those who share interest and have things in common. Taking it to a simple level, if one partner is very physically attractive but the other isn’t, then that person may feel insecure because they think that their partner should be with someone of their ‘standards’. Also, if there is nothing or very little in common then communication will be very difficult, thus leading to the end of the relationship. There are some issues with the methodology used when testing the FM. Firstly it was a longitudinal study so it could be subject to attrition. As participants had the right to withdraw, then those who felt they were inadequate in the study would have dropped out, leaving those who are better in relationships, maybe for reasons such as they are securely attached. This would have led to the results obtained being biased as the sample wouldn’t have been representative. In conjunction with this, questionnaires were used. As it was an opportunity sample the students may have responded in a way that they thought would benefit the researcher and in a way that was regarded by social norms. Therefore all these factors show that there was social desirability bias, demand characteristics and population validity. There is another type of bias; social economic bias, as student couples of the same age group and culture were used. This is further reinforced as only one generation was used. If a few generations would have been used then there may have been another trend in the results, for example older generations would have found filter 2 more important than filter 3. By explaining relationship formation in stages it fails to capture their fluid and dynamic nature. Some relationships flow at a slower or faster rate than the model suggest. It may not take a couple 18 months for the third filter to become most important and the evidence suggests. Alongside to this, the FM doesn’t account for individual differences as it has only dealt with similarities of personality and attitudes. There are some couples who have nothing in common but their relationship is as strong as others who have everything in common. Sometimes it’s better to have fewer things in common than everything because couples can get bored of each other when everything they do is the same.

Understanding of virtue Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Understanding of virtue - Assignment Example , n.d.) If this is correct, the virtue of a dressmaker is what enables her to sew beautiful dresses, or the virtue of a gardener is what enables him to produce a bountiful harvest, or etc.. In this aspect, virtue is different from person to person, but this does not give us a general description of a virtue. Mackenzie (1985), in her discussions of moral theories, said that Plato has a naturalist approach to evaluative qualities, and to relations which causes complexities. It is Plato’s reasoning that an object has a particular value to different persons at a different time and in a different relation, it is opposite. As digressed By Mackenzie, Plato values of an object vary subjectively, so that to be able to understand it, one must be able to assess and understand it, and that sometimes, these assessments are contradictory, since they are cognitively unreliable. Plato has made a conclusion, as Mackenzie pointed out, that â€Å"over and above sensible things, there exists ent ities that give absolute understanding of values, and these are the Forms which are cognitively reliable, pure instantiations, or absolutes, of value that provide us with the knowledge of what is best†. Plato’s representation is hard to follow, as in when he said that when we use a value term twice, it should have the same meaning, in mind. Plato has a view that for any given term, there should only be one Form that represents it all. (Mackenzie) There should be a universal term, but this thing is not possible because of complexity of meaning. Take the word beautiful or noble for example. This means, as I gathered from Plato’s discourse, a term may have different evaluative meaning like the words useful, fine and pleasant The first discourse In Plato’s dialogue about virtue and the question that lies beneath is whether or not virtue can be taught. His understanding of virtue in the book is that virtue is not a form of knowledge and that it has no clear definition. I cannot simply