Decision-Making Model Essay Example for Free

Decision-Making Model Essay The human decision-making process has been described by the development of several frameworks. The alternative for the maximize utility of the decision is selected by a fully informed, as well as, knowledgeable decision maker in the Rational Model. A satisfactory decision alternative is sought by the decision maker due to the causes of time, information, and space constraints according to the Bounder Rationality Model. It is hypothesized by the Organizational Model that available procedures are used by the decision maker for the solution of problems of decisions in a continuously updated organizational memory. Conflicting values and interests are confronted by the decision makers in the Muddling through Model, and an incremental improvement in the outcome is achieved by the selection of alternative with minimal organizational changes. An intermeshing of problems, solutions, and decision maker interest are represented by decisions that are forced by social and political factors in an anarchistic environment according to the Garbage Can Model. The criteria are met best by the identification of alternative with the use of relationship that is made between the criteria, events, and alternative by the decision maker in the Classical Decision Theory Model. During the selection process, conflicting constraints can be confronted by the decision maker, as intangible or tangible criteria would have to be dealt in uncertain events. The situation is assessed, a single alternative is generated and evaluated, and alternative for a satisfactory solution of the problem is selected by the decision makers according to the Naturalistic Decision-Making Model. Outcomes of the decision-making process are focused by some of the proposed models like Classical and Rational Decision Theory formulations. A limited set of decision activities is highlighted by other models like Bounded Rationality Models and Naturalistic Decision-Making Models. A comprehensive and integrated view of decision-making has been offered by none of the proposals. In addition, not all the situations of the decision-making can be applied with any formulations of these proposals. For instance, operational and tactical decisions can be applied with the Organizational Model. However, strategic decisions cannot be applied with this model due to incomplete understanding of the problem, as well as, limited availability of the knowledge of the problem. In this regard, the most popular model of the human decision-making process has been the three-phase paradigm of design, intelligence, and choice by the Simon. Virtually, all other proposed frameworks have been implied by this most general paradigm. However, an implementation phase of the Simon’s formulation has been concluded with the expansion of such scrutiny. Reality is observed by the decision maker during the intelligence phase. A fundamental understanding regarding the existing problems, as well as, new opportunities is gained by the maker. In addition, the general quantitative and qualitative information is acquired by the decision maker for the addressing of different opportunities, as well as, the problems. In the design phase, a specific and precise model is developed by the decision-maker, by which, the discovered problems and opportunities are examined systematically. Decision alternatives, uncontrollable events, criteria, and numerical, as well as, symbolic relationships will be consist in this model. The ensuing choice phase constitutes of the generation of recommended actions from the evaluation of the specified alternatives by the usage of explicit models logically. The analyses and recommendations are pondered by the decision maker during the subsequent implementation phase. In this regard, the consequences are weighed, and sufficient confidence is gained in the decision-making process. In addition, an implementation plan is developed, financial, human, and material resources are secured, the plan is put into the action. After the implementation of the final choice, the new reality should be observed by the decision maker. In addition, intelligence, design, choice, and implementation should be regarded and followed by the decision maker. Moreover, the need for revisions at preceding phases might be suggested by the phase’s analyses. For instance, adjustments of the previous design might be necessitated by the analyses during the choice. Conceptually, individual or group decision-making is applied with the decision-making process in the same manner. In practice, the communication-intensive aspects of cooperative problem solving must be accommodated by the group decision-making. In addition, voting, ranking, rating, and other consensus-developing methodologies should be supported by the usage of structured techniques. Group and organizational collaboration support should be provided by the development of this consensus. Decision-making model can be operated by the use of a variety of measures. Outcomes are dealt by some measures, and process outcomes are involved by the others. Positive decision outcomes can include: Increases in returns, costs reduction, and increment in the flow of information are some of the examples of the gains in the performance of the organization. When the understanding of a person regarding a current problem, as well as, its solution is developed, the decision-maker’s maturity develops. In addition, the improvement of the general problem-solving skills also results in the maturation of the decision-maker. Objectively, recording can be done regarding the number of opportunities, problems, as well as, alternatives. Experts, as well as, person’s evaluations can assess such efforts and subjective assessments. In expert’s evaluations, practice would be observed by the experienced decision makers and the examinee’s efforts will be rated. In this regard, a structured rating form will be used for its support. The examinees are used by the directed self-examinations, and a facilitator is used for the purpose of guidance. In some decision-making situations, the improvement of the organizational performance becomes impossible due to the competition, internal restrictions, external constraints, and several other factors. Under these circumstances, the main decision outcome will be the learning, training, and various other beneficial side effects during the maturation of the decision maker. Process Enhancements in the ability of a person or group are involved in the process improvements for the implementation of the phases and steps in the decision-making process. Experts, as well as, person’s evaluations can assess such efforts and with the help of subjective assessments. In expert’s evaluations, practice would be observed by the experienced decision makers and the proficiency of the examinee during each phase and step of the decision-making process will be rated. In this regard, a structured rating form will be used for its support. The examinees are used by the directed self-examinations, and a facilitator is used for the purpose of guidance. The use of accounting tools is involved in the process tracing, in which, the decision aid is embedded for the recording, as well as, reporting of the actions of the examinee during the decision-making process. In addition, the process enhancements may be manifested through: The time that is needed during the structuring of the problem by the user is reduced in a hike in personal efficiency. In addition, in a given time period, the number of alternatives is increased during the evaluation of the user, which is also an example of the hike in personal efficiency. The time of the decision-making is reduced, and the amount of pertinent information is increased from the decision-making is an improvement in the personal productivity. Objectively, recording can be done regarding the time and number of evaluated alternatives. Expert, as well as, direct self-evaluations by the activity of an individual or group can assess the amount of pertinent information, wisdom, and knowledge, that is, subjective assessments. In any particular management situation, more importance might be given to the support for some phases, as compared with the support for others. The process should be improved for at least the relevant phases by a given aid in the decision-making process. The decision outcome and process measures have been summarized in the Table 1. In addition, the measurements have been obtained by the available approaches, which have also been summarized in the table. As such, a series of guidelines has been offered by the table for the operation of the decision-making process. For instance, the implementation phase of the decision-making process consists of confidence and commitment of the decision maker. The performance of the decision maker during these steps is measured by the process tracing, expert ratings, and directed self-evaluations, as indicated by the Table 1.

Orlando Furioso Clarifies Vergil’s Ending in The Aeneid Essay -- Orlan

Orlando Furioso Clarifies Vergil’s Ending in The Aeneid  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚   Ariosto adapts and transforms Vergil’s final episode of The Aeneid into his own conclusion in Orlando Furioso. The final scenes in the epics parallel one another in many ways, yet also show distinct differences. Ruggiero and Rodomont represent Aeneas and Turnus, respectively, and the actions of Ariosto’s characters can be interchanged with their corresponding characters’ acts in The Aeneid. Ariosto reminds us of controversy and questions that Vergil elicits in his conclusion and responds interpretively, reshaping the ending and clarifying ambiguities. Does Vergil intend to write such an abrupt, controversial ending? Some critics suggest that Vergil meant to complete the story with a more upbeat, joyous tone, but he died before he completed task. They propose a Book XIII that incorporates a large ceremonial marriage between Aeneas and Lavinia into the story as a "happy" ending. Others insinuate that Vergil purposefully concludes the heroic poem to leave questions for readers. Ariosto incorporates a vast, joyful wedding between Ruggiero and Bradamant into his novel before mimicking Vergil’s ending; he argues that Vergil intended to end where he did. Even though we often yearn to read a "happy" ending, an abrupt, controversial ending provokes more contemplation. Ariosto suggests that Vergil planned to arouse his readers’ minds, and not satisfy their common desire for a "happy" ending, by introducing discord. Does Turnus pose a threat? From one point of view, Aeneas seems to always have the military upper hand, and Turnus seems physically inferior, thus not threatening. However, from a different perspective Turnus is deceptive, thus menacing. When he thinks h... ...this act to remind us how brutal Aeneas is when he kills without hesitation. Ariosto addresses the multiple ambiguities Vergil leaves behind. He indicates that a "happy" ending is not always required to please readers and transforms Vergil’s controversial ending into a straightforward conclusion by adapting Rodomont’s character to Turnus and Ruggiero’s character to Aeneas. When the hero’s foe poses a threat and proves capable of defending himself, we do not feel sorry for his death because the hero obviously must kill to defend his own life. We find comfort in Vergil’s ending by superimposing these interpretations and corrections by Ariosto into The Aeneid. Works Cited Waldman, Guido, trans. Orlando Furioso. By Ludovico Ariosto. New York: Oxford University Press, 1983. Fitzgerald, Robert, trans. The Aeneid. By Vergil. New York: Random House, 1983.   

Crop rotation

Agriculture, also called farming or husbandry, is the cultivation of animals, plants, fungi, and other life forms for food, fiber, biofuel,drugs and other products used to sustain and enhance human life. [1] Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that nurtured the development of civilization. The study of agriculture is known as agricultural science.The history of agriculture dates back thousands of years, and its development has been driven and defined by greatly different climates, cultures, and technologies. However, all farming generally relies on techniques to expand and maintain the lands that are suitable for raising domesticated species. For plants, this usually requires some form ofirrigation, although there are methods of dryland farming; pastoral herding on rangeland is still the most common means of raising livestock.In the developed world, industrial agriculture based on large-scale monoculture has become the dominant system of modern farming, although there is growing support for sustainable agriculture (e. g. permaculture or organic agriculture). Until the Industrial Revolution, the vast majority of the human population labored in agriculture. Pre-industrial agriculture was typicallysubsistence agriculture in which farmers raised most of their crops for their own consumption instead of for trade.A remarkable shift in agricultural practices has occurred over the past century in response to new technologies, and the development of world markets. This also led to technological improvements in agricultural techniques, such as the Haber-Bosch method for synthesizing ammonium nitratewhich made the traditional practice of recycling nutrients with crop rotation and animal manure less necessary. Historical Development of Crop Production Early man lived on wild game, leaves, roots, seeds, berries, and fruits.As the population increased, the food supply was not always sufficiently stable or plentiful to supply his needs. This probably led to the practice of crop production. Therefore, crop production began at least nine thousand (9000) years ago when domestication of plants became essential to supplement natural supplies in certain localities. The art of crop production is older than civilization, and its essential features have remained almost unchanged since the dawn of history. These features are: 1. Gathering and preservation of seeds of the desired crop plants 2.Destroying other kinds of vegetation growing on the land 3. Stirring the soil to form a seedbed 4. Planting when the season and weather are right as shown by past experience 5. Destroying weeds 6. Protecting the crop from natural enemies 7. Gathering, processing and storing the product Origin of Cultivated Crops All cultivated plants were domesticated from their wild species. However, the exact time and place of origin and the true ancestry of many crops are still as h ighly speculative as the origin of man. Man has domesticated some crop species that met his needs before the dawn of recorded history.Most of the domesticated crops were introduced into new areas far from their centre of origin by migrating human populations in prehistoric as well as in recorded times. As a result, both indigenous and introduced crops are grown everywhere in the world. Bikolandia – Rice, corn, coconut, abaca, rootcrops, copra, and banana CLASSIFICATION OF CROPS A new crop classification, the Indicative Crop Classification (ICC) has been developed for the 2010 round of agricultural censuses, and is given at the end of this appendix.The crop classification used in the 2000 agricultural census programme reflected various elements related to crops, including the growing cycle (temporary/permanent), crop species, crop variety (for example, hybrid/ordinary maize), season (for example, winter/spring wheat), land type (for example, wetland/dryland rice), crop use (fo r example, pumpkin for food/fodder), type of product (for example, fresh/dried beans), how the crop is processed (for example, industrial crops), and cultivation methods (for example, crops grown under protective cover).ICC has been developed based on the Central Product Classification (CPC) (UN, 2004a). CPC classifies goods and services into categories based on the nature of the product and industry of origin. Crop products are classified mainly according to the type of crop. CPC itself is based on the Harmonized Commodity Description and Coding System (HS), a classification of the World Customs Organization. CPC is also broadly compatible with ISIC, in that the industry of origin is related to ISIC. ICC is also consistent with the classification of commodities used in FAO’s on-line database, FAOSTAT.From a statistical point of view, the crop classification should be closely related to the product classification, and to some extent to the economic activity classification (IS IC). The crop classification refers to which crops are grown, whereas the product classification refers to the product(s) generated from that crop. Thus, â€Å"mustard† is an oilseed crop, whereas â€Å"mustard seed† is the oilseed product. There is not always a one-to-one correspondence between a crop and a product. The same crop may yield two products – for example, cotton may yield cotton fibre and cotton seed. Philippines – Crop production indexCrop production index (2004-2006 = 100) The latest value for Crop production index (2004-2006 = 100) in Philippines was 111. 00 as of 2009. Over the past 48 years, the value for this indicator has fluctuated between 113. 00 in 2008 and 29. 00 in 1961. Definition: Crop production index shows agricultural production for each year relative to the base period 2004-2006. It includes all crops except fodder crops. Regional and income group aggregates for the FAO's production indexes are calculated from the underlying values in international dollars, normalized to the base period 2004-2006.

Convicts to Australia - Researching Convict Ancestors

From the arrival of the First Fleet at Botany Bay in January 1788 to the last shipment of convicts to Western Australia in 1868, over 162,000 convicts were transported to Australia and New Zealand to serve out their sentences as slave labor. Nearly 94 percent of these convicts to Australia were English and Welsh (70%) or Scottish (24%), with an additional 5 percent coming from Scotland. Convicts were also transported to Australia from British outposts in India and Canada, plus Maoris from New Zealand, Chinese from Hong Kong and slaves from the Caribbean. Who Were The Convicts? The original purpose of convict transportation to Australia was establishment of a penal colony to alleviate pressure on the overburdened English correctional facilities following the end of convict transportation to the American colonies. The majority of the 162,000 chosen for transportation were poor and illiterate, with most convicted for larceny. From about 1810, convicts were seen as a labor source for building and maintaining roads, bridges, courthouses and hospitals. Most female convicts were sent to female factories, essentially forced labor camps, to work off their sentence. Convicts, both male and female, also worked for private employers such as free settlers and small land holders. Where Were The Convicts Sent? The location of surviving records related to convict ancestors in Australia largely depends on where they were sent.  Early convicts to Australia were sent to the colony of New South Wales, but by the mid-1800s they were also being sent directly to destinations such as Norfolk Island, Van Diemens Land (present-day Tasmania), Port Macquarie and Moreton Bay. The first convicts to Western Australia arrived in 1850, also the site of the last convict ship arrival in  1868. 1,750 convicts known as the Exiles arrived in Victoria from Britain between 1844 and 1849. British transportation records of criminal transportees described on the website of the UK National Archives are the best bet for determining where a convict ancestor was initially sent in Australia. You can also search the British convict transportation registers 1787–1867  or Ireland-Australia transportation database online to search for convicts sent to the Australian colony. Good Behavior, Tickets of Leave and Pardons If well-behaved after their arrival in Australia, convicts rarely served their full term. Good behavior qualified them for a Ticket of Leave, a Certificate of Freedom, Conditional Pardon or even an Absolute Pardon. A Ticket of Leave, first issued to convicts who seemed able to support themselves, and later to convicts after a set period of eligibility, allowed the convicts to live independently and work for their own wages while remaining subject to monitoring -- a probationary period. The ticket, once issued, could be withdrawn for misbehavior. Generally a convict became eligible for a Ticket of Leave after 4 years for a seven year sentence, after 6 years for a fourteen year sentence, and after 10 years for a life sentence. Pardons were generally granted to convicts with life sentences, shortening their sentence by granting freedom. A conditional pardon required the freed convict to remain in Australia, while an absolute pardon allowed the freed convict to return to the U.K. if they chose. Those convicts who did not receive a pardon and completed their sentence were issued a Certificate of Freedom. Copies of these Certificates of Freedom and related documents may generally be found in the state archives where the convict was last held. The State Archives of New South Wales, for example, offers an online Index to Certificates of Freedom, 1823–69. More Sources for Researching Convicts Sent to Australia Online Australias early convict records, 1788-1801 includes the names of over 12,000 convicts transported to New South Wales.The Tasmanian Names Index includes convicts (1803–1893) and  convict permissions to marry (1829–1857).The Fremantle Prison Convict Database serves as an online index to Western Australia convict registers.Over 140,000 records are searchable in the New South Wales Convict Index, including  certificates of freedom, bank accounts, deaths, exemptions from government labor, pardons, tickets of leave, and tickets of leave passports. Were Convicts Also Sent to New Zealand? Despite assurances from the British government that NO convicts would be sent to the fledgling colony of New Zealand, two ships transported groups of Parkhurst apprentices to New Zealand -- the  St. George  carrying 92 boys arrived at Auckland on 25 October 1842, and the  Mandarin  with a load of 31 boys on 14 November 1843. These  Parkhurst apprentices  were young boys, most between the ages of 12 and 16, who had been sentenced to Parkhurst, a prison for young male offenders located on the Isle of Wight. The Parkhurst apprentices, most of whom were convicted for minor crimes such as stealing, were rehabilitated at Parkhurst, with training in occupations such as carpentry, shoemaking and tailoring, and then exiled to serve out the remainder of their sentence. The Parkhurst boys chosen for transport to New Zealand were among the best of the group, classified as either free emigrants or colonial apprentices, with the idea that while New Zealand would not accept convicts, th ey would gladly accept trained labor. This did not go over well with the inhabitants of Auckland, however, who requested that no further convicts be sent to the colony. Despite their inauspicious beginning, many descendants of the  Parkhurst Boys  became distinguished citizens of New Zealand.